A new international study has found that container-based sanitation (CBS) systems can significantly improve quality of life for residents in urban slums, providing a flexible option where traditional sewer infrastructure is impractical.
The research, published in Nature Water and led by teams at Bangor University, Cranfield University, Rothamsted Research, and the Container Based Sanitation Alliance, tracked hundreds of participants across Kenya, Peru, and South Africa for a year using smartphone-based surveys.
CBS relies on sealed, portable containers collected and cleaned as part of a subscription service, avoiding the need for heavy infrastructure. Researchers say the model provides health, dignity, and safety benefits to communities often left behind by conventional investment.
Study participants using CBS toilets reported fewer problems than non-users and were largely satisfied with collection and cleaning services. Servicing quality was directly tied to improvements in sanitation-related wellbeing.
“Working with such a rich dataset of hundreds of participants, surveyed regularly over a year across three countries, we demonstrate that container-based sanitation – especially when well serviced – can meaningfully improve sanitation-related quality of life for people living in informal settlements,” said Dr Ben Exton of Bangor University.
Dr Alison Parker of Cranfield University, who led the project, added: “Access to safe sanitation and hygiene is one of the most basic human needs for health and wellbeing, so the importance of services like this can’t be overstated.”
While CBS was successful across countries, outcomes varied depending on how services were delivered. In Kenya and Peru, where social enterprises operated with grant support, users reported fewer problems and higher satisfaction. In South Africa, where local authorities provided CBS toilets free of charge at scale, satisfaction rates were lower.
Professor Simon Willcock, co-author from Bangor University and Rothamsted Research, said: “The study also revealed important differences between countries… users reported fewer problems and higher satisfaction compared to South Africa, where CBS toilets are provided free at scale by local authorities.”
Rémi Kaupp, head of the Container Based Sanitation Alliance, stressed the importance of professional operators: “Besides highlighting the crucial role that container based sanitation plays in ensuring continuous access in informal settlements, the study also shows the importance of professional sanitation operators to ensure residents enjoy uninterrupted and safe essential services.”
The findings underline the potential of low-cost, enterprise-driven sanitation to address urgent needs without requiring massive public investment in new sewer systems. Researchers acknowledge CBS is not a permanent replacement but a “transformative interim solution.”